Science & Environment

[CaaC (John)+]

How one teaspoon of Amazon soil teems with fungal life

A teaspoon of soil from the Amazon contains as many as 1,800 microscopic life forms, of which 400 are fungi.

Largely invisible and hidden underground, the "dark matter" of life on Earth has "amazing properties", which we're just starting to explore, say, scientists.

The vast majority of the estimated 3.8 million fungi in the world have yet to be formally classified.

Yet, fungi are surprisingly abundant in soil from Brazil's Amazon rainforest.

To help protect the Amazon rainforest, which is being lost at an ever-faster rate, it is essential to understand the role of fungi, said a team of researchers led by Prof Alexandre Antonelli, director of science at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

"Take a teaspoon of soil and you will find hundreds or thousands of species," he said. "Fungi are the next frontier of biodiversity science."

Fungi are usually neglected in inventories of biodiversity, being inconspicuous and largely hidden underground.

Fewer than 100 types of fungi have been evaluated for the IUCN Red List, compared with more than 25,000 plants and 68,000 animals.

• The secret life of fungi: Ten fascinating facts

• Pollution hits fungi that nourish trees - study

Fungi in soil from tropical countries are particularly poorly understood. To find out about soil from the Amazon rainforest in Brazil, researchers collected samples of soil and leaf litter from four regions.

Genetic analysis revealed hundreds of different fungi, including lichen, fungi living on the roots of plants, and fungal pathogens, most of which are unknown or extremely rare. Most species have yet to be named and investigated.

Areas of naturally open grasslands, known as Campinas, were found to be the richest habitat for fungi overall, where they may help the poorer soil take up nutrients.

Understanding soil diversity is critical in conservation actions to preserve the world's most diverse forest in a changing world, said Dr Camila Ritter of the University of Duisburg-Essen in Germany.

"For this, we need to put below-ground biodiversity on the agenda for future conservation action plans," she said.

Fungi are essential for recycling nutrients and regulating carbon dioxide levels, as well as being a source of food and medicines.

Yet, some species have a darker side; devastating trees, crops and other plants across the world, and wiping out animals such as amphibians.

The research, by teams in the UK, Brazil, Germany, Sweden and Estonia, is published in the journal, Ecology and Evolution.

https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-53197650

[CaaC (John)+]

After humanity: A timeline of the Earth after we go extinct

A step by step, day by day guide to how nature and the planet adjust after humanity exits the stage.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

After two days

Without active maintenance and pumping, New York City’s subways flood with water and become impassable.

Seven days in

Fuel runs out at the emergency generators that pump coolant into nuclear power plants. Approximately 450 reactors around the world begin to meltdown

.

After one year

Human head and body lice go extinct, while cockroaches in cities at temperate latitudes freeze to death. Domestic and farm animals perish in enormous numbers.

Three years later

Pipes burst in colder regions, flooding cities with water. Buildings lose structural integrity as they expand and contract with temperature changes.

20 years post-human-extinction

The Panama Canal closes, rejoining North and South America. Many crops disappear, outcompeted by wild varieties.

300 years on

Most of the world’s bridges fall. Dams silt up and overflow, washing away entire cities. Suburbs become forests as endangered species rebound.

100,000 years

CO2 in the atmosphere returns to pre-industrial levels. Microbes evolve to biodegrade plastic. Plutonium bombs made during the age of humans become safe to handle.

10,000,000 years

Bronze sculptures are still recognisable, as are the faces on Mount Rushmore.

Life still thrives on Earth, but in new forms.

https://www.sciencefocus.com/planet-earth/after-humanity-a-timeline-of-the-earth-after-we-go-extinct/

[CaaC (John)+]

Science & Environment 

What the heroin industry can teach us about solar power

If you have ever doubted whether solar power can be a transformative technology, read on.

This is a story about how it has proved its worth in the toughest environment possible.

The market I'm talking about is perhaps the purest example of capitalism on the planet.

There are no subsidies here. Nobody is thinking about climate change - or any other ethical consideration, for that matter.

This is about small-scale entrepreneurs trying to make a profit.

It is the story of how Afghan opium growers have switched to solar power, and significantly increased the world supply of heroin.

Black Hawk over Helmand

I was in a military helicopter thundering over the lush poppy fields of the Helmand valley in Afghanistan when I spotted the first solar panel.

You've heard of Helmand. It is the most dangerous province in Afghanistan.

Of the 454 British soldiers who died in the recent conflict in Afghanistan, all but five lost their lives in Helmand.

The province is also at the heart of by far the most productive opium-growing region on the planet.

FULL REPORT

 

[Stan]

Mount Sinaburg in Indonesia has erupted in Indonesia. Not sure if it's one of those that regularly does but seeing the pictures of the eruption & smoke is mad. 

[Mel81x+]

31 minutes ago, Stan said:

Mount Sinaburg in Indonesia has erupted in Indonesia. Not sure if it's one of those that regularly does but seeing the pictures of the eruption & smoke is mad. 

Those are some crazy images.

[CaaC (John)+]

Robot boat completes a three-week Atlantic mission

A UK boat has just provided an impressive demonstration of the future of robotic maritime operations.

The 12m Uncrewed Surface Vessel (USV) Maxlimer has completed a 22-day-long mission to map an area of the seafloor in the Atlantic.

SEA-KIT International, which developed the craft, "skippered" the entire outing via satellite from its base in Tollesbury in eastern England.

The mission was part-funded by the European Space Agency.

Robot boats promise a dramatic change in the way we work at sea.

Already, many of the big survey companies that run traditional crewed vessels have started to invest heavily in the new, remotely operated technologies. Freight companies are also acknowledging the cost advantages that will come from running robot ships.

But "over-the-horizon" control has to show it's practical and safe if it's to gain wide acceptance. Hence, the demonstration from Maxlimer.

FULL REPORT

[CaaC (John)+]

Scientists have the answer to a tadpole mystery

Scientists have discovered how to identify frogs from their tadpoles in a step towards saving amphibians from extinction.

Conservation efforts to protect the breeding grounds of endangered frogs has been hampered by the difficulty of telling tadpoles apart.

Now researchers have solved the puzzle for frogs living in Vietnam's remote forests.

Their work on Asian horned frogs will help stop amphibians being lost.

Some survive only in small areas of forests which are fast being altered or destroyed.

Benjamin Tapley, curator of reptiles and amphibians at international conservation charity ZSL (Zoological Society of London), said: "These frogs occur in some of the most exploited forests on Earth and are suffering from rapid habitat loss and degradation."

Tadpoles are a common sight in streams for several months of the year, but once they become frogs they disappear into the undergrowth or up trees, where they may never be seen again.

As frogs and their tadpoles look nothing like each other, It's important to know which tadpole becomes which frog, he explained.

"It helps us detect the presence of a species, especially as adult frogs can be seasonally active and difficult to find, and allows us to identify which places might be important frog breeding sites that need protection," said Dr Tapley.

The researchers collected geographical data, took photographs and made measurements of tadpoles, comparing their DNA to samples from adults of known frog species.

They were able to identify the tadpoles of six species of Asian horned frogs found in Vietnam's mountain forests.

The tadpoles are unusual, with funnel-like mouthparts, while the adults, named for the horn-like projections above their eyes, are brown with skin folds that resemble leaf veins helping in camouflage on the forest floor.

There are more than 250 species of frogs and toads in Vietnam, many of which are highly threatened yet remain incredibly poorly known.

Amphibians are under increasing threat from habitat loss, wildlife trade, climate change and deadly diseases.

• Killer frog disease wipes out 90 species
• How frogs could vanish from ponds
• World's 'loneliest' frog gets a date

One disease alone, a type of fungus, has pushed at least 501 amphibians towards extinction, a whopping 6.5% of known species.

The research carried out with the charity Indo-Myanmar Conservation, the Asian Turtle Program and the Australian Museum has been published in two papers in the journal Zootaxa.

https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-54006016

[CaaC (John)+]

What wobbling rocks can tell us about nuclear safety

Precariously balanced rocks, or PBRs, record a history of things that haven’t happened

We’ve all seen them; we’ve even taken pictures of ourselves pretending to hold them up or to push them over.

These are the precariously balanced rocks on a hill or a coastal cliff. It’s as if the gentlest nudge would send them tumbling.

In truth, the disturbance needed to unsettle the blocks is quite significant, and that got husband and wife geologists Drs Dylan and Anna Rood wondering about how these great stones could be used to decipher earthquake history

Think about it: if a precariously balanced rock has held its position for 10,000 years without tipping over, it means the land around the stone hasn’t experienced shaking above a certain level in all that time.

“The turn of phrase we’re trying to coin is that these precariously balanced rocks, or PBRs, are an ‘inverse seismometer’,” explains Anna.

“A normal seismometer records an event that has happened, whereas our PBR is still standing there, and so it records an earthquake that hasn’t happened. Specifically, a large earthquake,” the Imperial College London, UK, researcher tells BBC News.

FULL REPORT & More Photos

[CaaC (John)+]

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Two women share chemistry Nobel in historic win for 'genetic scissors'

Two scientists have been awarded the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for developing the tools to edit DNA.

Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna are the first two women to share the prize, which honours their work on the technology of genome editing.

Their discovery, known as Crispr-Cas9 "genetic scissors", is a way of making specific and precise changes to the DNA contained in living cells.

They will split the prize money of 10 million krona (£861,200; $1,110,400).

Biological chemist Pernilla Wittung-Stafshede, commented: "The ability to cut DNA where you want has revolutionised the life sciences."

Not only has the women's technology been transformative for basic research, but it could also be used to treat inherited illnesses.

Prof Charpentier, from the Max Planck Unit for the Science of Pathogens in Berlin, said it was an emotional moment when she learned about the award.

"When it happens, you're very surprised, and you think it's not real. But obviously, it's real," she said.

• Hepatitis C discovery wins the Nobel Prize
• Blackhole breakthroughs win Nobel physics prize

On being one of the first two women to share the prize, Prof Charpentier said: "I wish that this will provide a positive message specifically for young girls who would like to follow the path of science... and to show them that women in science can also have an impact with the research they are performing."

She continued: "This is not just for women, but we see a clear lack of interest in following a scientific path, which is very worrying."

FULL REPORT

 

[CaaC (John)+]

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Arctic odyssey ends, bringing home tales of alarming ice loss

The Polarstern icebreaker was frozen into the Arctic sea ice for months as part of the expedition

The biggest Arctic expedition in history will return to the German port of Bremerhaven on Monday after a year-long mission, bringing home observations from scientists that sea ice is melting at a "dramatic rate" in the region.

Coronavirus restrictions mean there will be no grand fanfare when the German Alfred Wegener Institute's Polarstern ship docks.

But the information gathered by researchers as the ship drifted through the ocean trapped in ice will be vital to helping scientists understand the effects of climate change.

In the summer, the researchers saw for themselves the dramatic effects of global warming on ice in the region, considered "the epicentre of climate change", according to mission leader Markus Rex.

"We could see broad stretches of open water reaching nearly to the Pole, surrounded by ice that was riddled with holes produced by massive melting," Rex said.

His sobering conclusion: "The Arctic ice is disappearing at a dramatic rate."

'Magical moment'

The researchers' observations have been backed up by US satellite images showing that in 2020, sea ice in the Arctic reached its second-lowest summer minimum on record, after 2012.

The Polarstern mission, dubbed MOSAIC, spent 389 days collecting data on the atmosphere, ocean, sea ice and ecosystems to help assess the impact of climate change on the region and the world.

To carry out the research, four observational sites were set up on the sea ice in a radius of up to 40 kilometres around the ship.

The researchers collected water samples from beneath the ice during the polar night to study plant plankton and bacteria and better understand how the marine ecosystem functions under extreme conditions.

The 140-million-euro ($165 million) expedition is also bringing back to shore more than 1,000 ice samples.

With the odyssey drawing to a close, work will begin in earnest on analysing the samples and data retrieved or recorded on site.

The analysis process will take up to two years, with the aim of developing models to help predict what heatwaves, heavy rains or storms could look like in 20, 50 or 100 years' time.

"To build climate models, we need in situ observations," Radiance Calmer, a researcher at the University of Colorado who was on board the Polarstern from June to September, told AFP.

The team used drones to measure temperature, humidity, pressure and wind speeds to create a picture of conditions in the region that will be "very useful for establishing a climate model", Calmer said.

Recounting her experience on the mission, the researcher said being able to walk across the ice and experience those conditions first-hand was a "magical" moment.

"If you concentrate, you can feel it moving," she said.

"It's important to take the time to observe, not just focus on your work."

20 polar bears

Since the ship departed from Tromso, Norway, on September 20, 2019, the crew have seen long months of complete darkness, temperatures as low as -39.5 Celsius (-39.1 Fahrenheit)—and around 20 polar bears.

The mission was almost derailed by the coronavirus pandemic in the spring, with the crew stranded at the North Pole for two months as borders slammed shut.

A multinational team of scientists was due to fly in as part of a scheduled relay to relieve those who had already spent several months on the ice, but the plan had to be redrawn when flights were cancelled across the world as governments scrambled to halt contagion of the coronavirus.

During the course of the expedition, several hundred researchers from 20 countries spent time onboard the German ship as it travelled with the ice along a wind-driven route known as the transpolar drift.

The voyage was a huge logistical challenge, not least when it came to feeding the crew—during the first three months, the ship's cargo included 14,000 eggs, 2,000 litres of milk and 200 kilogrammes of rutabaga.

The ship's cook, Sven Schneider, did not underestimate the importance of his role in the mission.

"It was my job to maintain the morale of 100 people living in total darkness," he said in an interview with German weekly newspaper Die Zeit.

https://phys.org/news/2020-10-arctic-odyssey-home-tales-alarming.html

 

[Azeem]

Can't they put a turbine in a whirlpool to make it spin enough to produce electricity

[CaaC (John)+]

8 hours ago, Azeem said:

Can't they put a turbine in a whirlpool to make it spin enough to produce electricity

@nudge?   

[nudge]

58 minutes ago, CaaC (John) said:

@nudge?   

Theoreticaly, you can. But most naturally ocurring whirlpools in the rivers are way too small and have way too little power to be a viable large-scale solution, nevermind other potential issues such as freezing water in winter, debris, trash, etc. The big powerful ones in the oceans have the same issues as other existing marine technology, namely expensive and difficult installation, high maintenance and repair costs, challenges related to the bottom surface, gravel, sand, salt, corrosion, debris etc. Whirlpools in oceans are also highly dependent on the tides, so it's not a very stable source either.

[Dr. Gonzo]

I like how @CaaC (John)'s just guessed that @nudge might know the answer... and then she's gone and given a really good answer.

nudge is officially the TF365 science teacher

[CaaC (John)+]

She reminds me of a head-mistress.

[Azeem]

2 hours ago, nudge said:

Theoreticaly, you can. But most naturally ocurring whirlpools in the rivers are way too small and have way too little power to be a viable large-scale solution, nevermind other potential issues such as freezing water in winter, debris, trash, etc. The big powerful ones in the oceans have the same issues as other existing marine technology, namely expensive and difficult installation, high maintenance and repair costs, challenges related to the bottom surface, gravel, sand, salt, corrosion, debris etc. Whirlpools in oceans are also highly dependent on the tides, so it's not a very stable source either.

Can't they train whales to spin the turbines like they do with bulls in farming ?

[Azeem]

 

[CaaC (John)+]

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Robert Hooke, a man for the times

An underrated overachiever in the world of science.

Robert Hooke was one of the greatest scientists of the 17th century. Think about that.

Hooke was born in England, at Freshwater, on the Isle of Wight, on 18 July 1635, and died in London on 3 March 1703. His contemporaries included the following.

Christopher Wren, born at Knoyle, Wiltshire, in southwest England, on 20 October 1632. His reputation as one of the greatest architects of his time overshadowed his abilities as a mathematician.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, born on 1 July 1646 in Leipzig, Germany, at the time part of the Holy Roman Empire. The Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy calls him “one of the great thinkers of the 17th and 18th centuries”.

And, of course, Isaac Newton, whose birth date is given variously as 25 December 1642 and 4 January 1643. Born in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England, he is called by the Encyclopaedia Britannica, “the culminating figure of the Scientific Revolution of the 17th century”.

As for Hooke, historian Allan Chapman gave a lecture to the Royal Institution of Great Britain in 1996, titled “England’s Leonardo: Robert Hooke and the art of experiment in Restoration England”.

Hooke “was an extraordinarily quick learner, possessed a manual dexterity which enabled him to build an impressive array of mechanical devices”, Chapman says.

One of the devices for which he is best known is the microscope; he designed several of excellent quality and their use formed the basis for his book, Micrographia, published in 1665.

“He observed organisms as diverse as insects, sponges, bryozoans, foraminifera, and bird feathers,” says an article published by the University of California at Berkeley Museum of Paleontology (UCMP), adding that “Micrographia was an accurate and detailed record of his observations, illustrated with magnificent drawings”.

With his microscope, Hooke discovered plant cells. “What Hooke saw were the cell walls in cork tissue,” the UCMP says. “In fact, it was Hooke who coined the term ‘cells’.”

Hooke was schooled at home by his father, John, a parish curate, until his early teens. Even untrained, he displayed such talent at detailed drawing, it was suggested to his father that young Robert could have a career as an artist.

At age 13, however, he was allowed to move to London and attend the Westminster School, and from there he received a scholarship to attend Christ Church, Oxford University.

At Oxford, he formed influential and creative friendships, Chapman says. He was encouraged to study astronomy, mathematics and mechanics, and was employed as a chemical assistant and given training in anatomy and dissection, “which would be essential in his own later researches into respiration”.

Chapman says that “as a man of acknowledged talent as a practical exponent of the ‘new philosophy’, Hooke was the obvious choice for the office of Curator of Experiments to the newly chartered Royal Society of London in 1662”, responsible for demonstrating new experiments at the society’s weekly meetings.

“But we must not forget that at this early stage in his career, he did not sit with the Fellows,” Chapman adds. He was an employee, or servant, with a salary.

He was not a gentleman, with independent means, although in 1665 he was appointed professor of geometry at Gresham College and had become a full Fellow of the Royal Society.

He served as a chief surveyor and helped Wren rebuild London after the Great Fire of 1666. As the UCMP says, he also “worked out the correct theory of combustion; devised an equation describing elasticity that is still used today (Hooke’s Law); assisted Robert Boyle in studying the physics of gases; and invented or improved meteorological instruments such as the barometer, anemometer, and hygrometer”.

And yet, for all this, there are no known portraits of Hooke in existence.

One of the popular theories about why Hooke today is less well known than many of his contemporaries, despite his tremendous accomplishments, is attributable to a feud with Isaac Newton.

An article published by the University of St Andrews School of Mathematics and Statistics in Scotland says Hooke had “a bitter dispute with Newton” over several points of difference.

“When Newton produced his theory of light and colour in 1672, Hooke claimed that what was correct in Newton’s theory was stolen from his own ideas about the light of 1665, and what was original was wrong. This marked the beginning of severe arguments between the two.”

cosmosmagazine.com/science/physics/robert-hooke-a-man-for-the-times/

 

[CaaC (John)+]

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A68 iceberg on a collision path with South Georgia

The world's biggest iceberg, known as A68a, is bearing down on the British Overseas Territory of South Georgia.

The Antarctic ice giant is a similar size to the South Atlantic island, and there's a strong possibility the berg could now ground and anchor itself offshore of the wildlife haven.

If that happens, it poses a grave threat to local penguins and seals.

The animals' normal foraging routes could be blocked, preventing them from feeding their young properly.

And it goes without saying that all creatures living on the seafloor would be crushed where A68a touched down - a disturbance that would take a very long time to reverse.

"Ecosystems can and will bounce back of course, but there's a danger here that if this iceberg gets stuck, it could be there for 10 years," said Prof Geraint Tarling from the British Antarctic Survey (BAS).

"And that would make a very big difference, not just to the ecosystem of South Georgia but it's economy as well," he told BBC News.

FULL REPORT

 

[CaaC (John)+]

 

[CaaC (John)+]

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Iconic Puerto Rico telescope to be dismantled amid collapse fears

The iconic Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto Rico is to be dismantled amid safety fears, officials have announced.

A review found that the 305m telescope was at risk of catastrophic collapse, following damage to its support system.

It concluded that the huge structure could not be repaired without posing a potentially deadly risk to construction workers.

The telescope has been a key scientific resource for radio astronomers for 57 years.

Sethuraman Panchanathan, director of the US National Science Foundation (NSF), which funds the telescope, said in a statement: "NSF prioritises the safety of workers, Arecibo Observatory's staff and visitors, which makes this decision necessary, although unfortunate."

The telescope consists of a radio dish that's 305 metres (1,000ft) wide with a 900-tonne instrument platform hanging 137m (450ft) above. The platform is suspended by cables connected to three towers.

Engineers had been examining the structure since August when one of its support cables snapped.

The University of Central Florida, which manages the facility, had come up with a solution to stabilise the structure. But on 6 November, another cable broke.

Based on the stresses acting on the second broken cable, engineers concluded that the remaining cables were probably weaker than previously thought.

The NSF reviewed multiple assessments by independent engineering companies and concluded that the telescope structure was "in danger of a catastrophic failure" and its cables may no longer be capable of carrying the loads they were designed to support.

Furthermore, several assessments stated that any attempts at repairs could put workers in life-threatening danger.

Ralph Gaume, director of NSF's division of astronomical sciences, said: "Until these assessments came in, our question was not if the observatory should be repaired but how. But in the end, a preponderance of data showed that we simply could not do this safely. And that is a line we cannot cross."

The foundation will now focus on decommissioning the giant structure, which is surrounded by forest in the western half of the island.

It was built in the early 1960s, with the intention of studying the ionised upper part of Earth's atmosphere, the ionosphere. But it was soon being used as an all-purpose radio observatory.

Radio astronomy is a field within the larger discipline that observes objects in the Universe by studying them at radio frequencies. A number of cosmic phenomena such as pulsars - magnetised, rotating stars - show emission at radio wavelengths.

The observatory provided the first solid evidence for a type of object known as a neutron star. It was also used to identify the first example of a binary pulsar (two magnetised neutron stars orbiting around a common centre of mass), which earned its discoverers the Nobel Prize in Physics.

The telescope also helped to make the first definitive detection of exoplanets, planetary bodies orbiting other stars, in 1992.

It has also been used to listen for signals from intelligent life elsewhere in the cosmos and to track near-Earth asteroids.

Over the years, the main dish appeared as a location in movies, including Goldeneye, Pierce Brosnan's first outing as James Bond in 1995, and the 1997 science fiction drama Contact, starring Jodie Foster and Matthew McConaughey.

The Democrat Congresswoman Eddie Bernice Johnson and Republican Congressman Frank Lucas, who are respectively chair and ranking member on the US House Science, Space and Technology Committee, said in a statement that they were "saddened by the loss of the facility".

They added: "Everyone involved with this facility should be proud of what you have achieved. Arecibo will be remembered for an illustrious scientific legacy."

https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-55008567

 

[CaaC (John)+]

Edit: Post Deleted

Cough, cough, Princess Leia has kicked my ass as this was posted in the Space Thread yesterday.  

Edited November 26, 2020 by CaaC (John)

[nudge]

3 minutes ago, CaaC (John) said:

 

@Stan posted it in the Space thread yesterday  

[CaaC (John)+]

9 minutes ago, nudge said:

@Stan posted it in the Space thread yesterday  

 

13 minutes ago, CaaC (John) said:

Edit: Post Deleted

Cough, cough, Princess Leia has kicked my ass as this was posted in the Space Thread yesterday.  

Fixed   

[Stan]

Come on, John, fix up!